British Mesopotamia Campaign Of World War I (1914-18)

Musings On Iraq review An Analysis of Hanna Batatu’s The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq

Musings On Iraq review Arab War Lords and Iraqi Star Gazers, Second Edition, Gertrude Bell’s Arab of Mesopotamia

Musings On Iraq review The Chatham House Version and other Middle-Eastern Studies

Musings On Iraq review The Creation of Iraq 1914-1921

Musings On Iraq review Gertrude Bell And Iraq

Musings On Iraq review Gertrude Bell, Explorer of the Middle East

Musings On Iraq review Iraq and Gertrude Bell’s The Arab of Mesopotamia

Musings On Iraq review Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest

Musings On Iraq review U.S. Policy In Post-Saddam Iraq

Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921

 

1914

Aug 2 Ottomans signed alliance with Germany that would bring Mesopotamia into WW1

 

Aug 4 US consulate report Ottomans ordered mobilization and draft in Baghdad

 

Aug 25 British admiralty ordered 2 ships to be sent to Shatt al-Arab to block Ottoman

supplies and ground forces and to protect oil interests in Persia

(Musings On Iraq review Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Aug 9 US consulate report Martial law declared in Baghdad Vilayet would provide 15,000

recruits for war Ottomans called on all Muslims to serve

 

Sep 9 India Viceroy requested 3rd ship to be sent to Shatt al-Arab and to seize Basra vilayet

before start of WWI

(Musings On Iraq review Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Sep 19 UK sent 3 gunboats to Shatt al-Arab to protect Persian oil fields

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Sep 26 Gen Barrow at India Office said UK had to stop Turkish-Arab alliance and

declaration of jihad which could spread to Afghanistan and threaten India UK should make show of force in Shatt al-Arab to deter Arabs from backing Ottomans and if war started should seize Basra vilayet

(Musings On Iraq review Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Sep 29 Royal Naval dispatched ships to patrol Shatt al-Arab to protect Persian oil concessions

(Musings On Iraq review Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Oct 2 London told India to prepare to send ships and men to Shatt al-Arab and land troops in

Persia to protect oil interests

(Musings On Iraq review Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Oct 10 Gen Delamain cmdr UK 6th Div in India told to sail to Persia Said Turks had small

inferior force in Basra Sir Percy Cox appointed his political officer

(Musings On Iraq review Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Oct 16 UK convoy with 16th Indian Bgd on way to Egypt told it was being sent to Persian

Gulf to secure Persian oil fields and occupy Basra

(Musings On Iraq review Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Oct 21 Ottoman Basra Governor demanded UK withdraw warship from Shatt al-Arab docked

in Persia to protect oil concession Ottomans began shooting at ship UK agreed

(Musings On Iraq review Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Oct 28 Gen Delamain cmdr UK 6th Div in India made plans to seize Fao in Basra

(Musings On Iraq review Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Oct 31 India ordered 6th Div to seize Fao and clear Turks out of Shatt al-Arab before WWI

started

(Musings On Iraq review Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Nov 3 UK troops arrived at mouth of Shatt al-Arab while warship bombarded Ottoman fort

on Faw Peninsula before Ottomans joined WWI

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Nov 5 England and France declared war on Ottoman Empire Would lead Mesopotamia

            into WWI

(Musings On Iraq review The Chatham House Version and other Middle-Eastern Studies)

Nov 5 British Gen Delmain head of Indian Expeditionary Force told to protect oil

            infrastructure and only take Basra if the Ottomans joined WWI

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Nov 6 British troops landed at Faw, Basra starting war against Ottomans in Mesopotamia

(Musings On Iraq review Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Nov 7 British forces started march from Faw to city of Basra

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Nov 8 British troops seized Ottoman fort at Faw

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Nov 9 With English attack on Basra coming locals went to Shiite clergy asking for

            help to defend city

 

Nov 11 Ottomans declared war on England and France

Nov 11 Battle of Basra began when Ottomans attacked and were turned back by British

Nov 11 Leading citizens in Basra vilayet sent telegram to Najaf, Karbala, Khadimiya asking

clergy to mobilize tribes against British invasion Eventually 18,000 recruits from mid-Euphrates mobilized

 

Nov 12 British forces in Faw launched reconnaissance in force near Saihan, Basra

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Nov 14 Sheikh of Islam called for jihad against British and French during WWI Call was

repeated in all Sunni mosques in Mosul, Baghdad and Basra vilayets

Nov 14 Gen Barrett ordered to seize Basra vilayet

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

Nov 14 British attacked Ottomans at Sahil Caught in rainstorm Couldn’t see enemy

saved by naval gunfire

 

Nov 15 Ottomans attacked British at Saihan, Basra Forced to retreat British lost 62 casualties

Turks 126

 

Nov 16 British forces attacked Fort Zain, Basra

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

Nov 16 Leading Iraqi cleric Sayid Kadhim al-Yazidi gave speech in Najaf telling people to

defend Islam against British and provide money

 

Nov 17 British attacked Sahil, Basra backed by 4 gunships and won Ottomans lost 1,500-

2,000 casualties British 489

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

Nov 17 Ottomans largely abandoned Basra vilayet and retreated to Amara

 

Nov 18 British launched second attack on Fort Zain, Basra

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Nov 19 British troops took Fort Zain, Basra Ottomans retreated to Basra city

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Nov 20 Arab tribes told British forces Ottomans had abandoned Basra British forces set

            out to take city

 

Nov 21 British troops entered Basra after Ottomans abandoned city

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Nov 22 Looting started in Basra city after it fell to British UK appointed governor of vilayet

 

Nov 23 Sir Percy Cox issued statement in Arabic that British had occupied Basra and UK

was at war with Ottomans and had no ill will towards locals

Nov 23 Sir Percy Cox telegram to India Said Arabs were pro-British and Baghdad vilayet

could be taken easily Said Sheikh Ajaimi of Montafiq Confederation wanted to submit to British Not true

(Musings On Iraq review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Nov 26 Gen Barrow in India was against further advances by British in Mesopotamia Did

want to seize Qurna, Basra

 

Nov 27 London told Gen Barrett wasn’t time to seize Baghdad vilayet but that Qurna, Basra

should be taken

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

Nov 27 Chief UK political officer Cox asked for permission to set up administration in Basra

vilayet Request denied Said couldn’t occupy and administer any land until end of WWI

 

Nov 29 Gen Barrett and Sir Percy Cox asked that UK occupation of Basra be announced as

permanent believing it would sway Arabs to UK side Request turned down

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Dec 4 UK forced landed at Muzaira, Basra to seize Qurna Didn’t have troops to take town

Retreated

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Dec 7 UK made 2nd attack on Qurna, Basra forcing Ottomans to retreat Lost around 200 killed

130 taken prisoner UK lost 10 killed 118 wounded

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Dec 9 Ottoman forces surrendered in Qurna, Basra 1,034 Ottomans taken prisoner End of 1st

phase of Mesopotamian campaign

 

1915

Jan 1 UK set out from Qurna, Basra north Found Tigris River had been blocked Gunboats

couldn’t follow Forced UK to retreat back to Qurna

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Jan 2 Suleiman Bey took over Iraq command for Ottomans Called on Arab Sheikhs to

            join war against British and planned on retaking Basra

 

Jan 15 Sir Percy Cox reported some Arab sheikhs had given up ties with UK and joined Turks

following calls for jihad

 

Jan 18 US consulate report UK forces in Basra under constant harassment by tribes

 

Jan 19 Ottoman governor of Baghdad wrote US consulate that British were distributing

money to clerics in Najaf and Karbala

 

Jan 20 UK troops and ships attacked Turks and Arabs in Ruta Creek, Basra Turned back Did

wound Ottoman commander in Basra who was sent to Baghdad

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Feb 5 Lord Hardinge visited Basra Assured locals that British would protect their interests

Met by anti-UK protests in Qurna and Shaiba

 

Feb 9 UK fought skirmishes with Sehikh Ajaimi’s men from Montafiq Confederation in

Basra

 

Feb 12 Lord Hardinge wrote India Office Said taking Baghdad was likely ultimate objective

of British occupation of Mesopotamia

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Feb 17 UK forced to retreat from Muzaira, Basra due to bad weather and flooding

 

Feb 24 Viceroy of India confirmed Basra and Baghdad vilayets should be under British

control and ruled from India

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review U.S. Policy In Post-Saddam Iraq)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Feb 28 Gen Hardinge telegraph said taking Nasiriya and Amara were necessary to secure

Basra vilayet

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Mar 2 UK attacked Nukhaila Turned back by tribesmen Turned into route

 

Mar 15 Viceroy of India wrote UK interests were protecting Persian oil concession which

meant Basra vilayet should be controlled by UK while Baghdad vilayet should be ceded by Turkey and given native administration under UK influence

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Mar 17 Another UK brigade from India arrived in Basra as reinforcements

 

Mar 23 French Amb to UK Cambon suggested that UK and France begin discussions on

dividing Ottoman Empire Would lead to creation of Iraq

 

Mar 24 Gen Nixon made UK cmdr in Mesopotamia Told to hold Basra vilayet and all outlets

to sea

 

Mar 25 UK PM Asquith said that after WWI UK should get part of Mesopotamia Same time

afraid of imperial overreach Said taking Mesopotamia would cost millions

(Musings On Iraq review U.S. Policy In Post-Saddam Iraq)

 

Apr 7 UK Gen Nixon ordered to prepare attack on Nasiriya and Amara to protect Basra

vilayet and Persian oil concession

(Musings On Iraq review Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Apr 8 PM Asquith ordered committee created to determine which parts of Ottoman Empire

UK should get Would lead to creation of Iraq

(Musings On Iraq review U.S. Policy In Post-Saddam Iraq)

 

Apr 9 New UK cmdr in Mesopotamia Gen Nixon arrived Ordered to take all of Basra vilayet

Secure Tigris River to protect Anglo-Persian Oil Company in Persia Plan for advance on Baghdad 1st step in escalating war from protecting oil concession to taking all of Mesopotamia

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Apr 11 Ottomans launched operation to try to retake Basra from British forces

 

Apr 12 Battle of Shaiba began in Basra Ottomans and tribesmen launched frontal

assault upon fortress despite German advisers warning against it British artillery decimated Ottoman forces

 

Apr 13 British won Battle of Shaiba Ottomans had 4200 casualties 700 captured UK 1232

casualties Ottoman commander Askari killed himself in disgrace British 1200 casualties

 

Apr 14 Ottoman campaign to try to retake Basra from British failed

 

Apr 15 UK War Ministry committee heard from Adm Slade leading UK oil expert Said if

Ottoman Empire divided UK had to get Mosul vilayet because had oil

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

 

Apr 22 Lord Curzon asked why British should promise Basra and Baghdad vilayets to

            Arabs if they were fighting on Ottoman side

 

Apr 23 UK Gen Townshend ordered by Mesopotamia cmdr Gen Nixon to take Qurna and

Amara

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Apr 30 Ottoman mayor murdered in Najaf for trying to draft men for war and taking money

from shrines

 

May 13 British forces moved north to try to encircle Ottoman forces in Qurna

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

May 26 US consulate report Discontent in Baghdad against draft for war growing UK trying

to bribe tribes south of Baghdad to turn on Ottomans

 

May 31 British took Qurna and set out to capture Amarah from Ottomans

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Jun 2 British troops from Persia crossed Tigris and attacked Amara after convincing Ottoman

garrison commander to surrender 

Jun 2 UK ships attacked Ottomans retreating from Amara Destroyed 2 Ottoman ships

Captured 3rd

 

Jun 3 British took Amara after Ottomans withdrew

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Jun 4 Ottomans counterattacked trying to retake Amara Failed

 

Jun 10 US consulate report Ottomans might have lost control of Najaf and Karbala and UK

money behind it

 

Jun 22 British troops began attack upon Nasiriya

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Jun 25 UK cmdr Gen Nixon wrote India Said Kut had to be seized Would be gateway to

Baghdad but more importantly could control Bani Lam tribe by separating it from Ottomans

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

Jun 25 British troops took Nasiriya Ottomans had 200 casualties British 500

 

Jun 29 US consulate report on anti-Turk riot in Karbala

 

Jun 30 UK committee wrote paper advocating for break up of Ottoman Empire and

            creation of Iraq to control its oil and agriculture Cabinet didn’t agree with ideas

(Musings On Iraq review The Chatham House Version and other Middle-Eastern Studies)

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review U.S. Policy In Post-Saddam Iraq)

 

Jul 5 British attacked Turk-Arab force outside Suq al-Shuyuk and defeated them

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Jul 6 UK took Suq al-Shuyuk, Dhi Qar after defeating Turk-Arab forces outside town day

before

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Jul 14 US consulate report Worried that sectarian war might start with Shiites turning on

Sunni Ottomans due to troubles in Karbala and Najaf

 

Jul 25 British took Nasiriya

Jul 25 UK Mesopotamia cmdr Gen Nixon said necessary to take Kut to secure command of

Tigris and Euphrates and the Bani Lam tribe

(Musings On Iraq review Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Aug 16 Aziz Ali al-Misri leader of secret Arab society al-Ahd met with UK military intel

officer in Cairo Talked about his idea of Arab revolt in Iraq and Syria that he wanted UK to back Officer turned him down

 

Sep 9 UK cmdr Gen Nixon wrote India that Baghdad should be occupied

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Sep 12 British forces launched campaign to capture Baghdad starting in Wasit

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Sep 27 Battle of Es Sinn began 1st move by British to take Kut

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Sep 28 British attacked Ottomans at Es Sinn with frontal attack Ottomans held and retreated

at night

 

Sep 29 British forces took Kut Suffered 1200 casualties

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Oct 5 6th Army created by Ottomans under command of German Gen von der Goltz to

            defend Mesopotamia from British

 

Oct 6 Sir Percy Lake new Chief of General Staff in India said UK must take Baghdad because

it would be turning point in war in East

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Oct 8 UK cmdr General Nixon said he could defeat the Turks and take Baghdad

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Oct 19 UK General Staff recommended taking Baghdad before Turkish forces grew in

strength in Mesopotamia

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Oct 21 UK War Council met Decided UK would take Baghdad then announce UK was there

temporarily and would accept an Arab state and Baghdad might be part of it Contradicted talk in Foreign Ministry that Basra and Baghdad would be controlled by UK

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review U.S. Policy In Post-Saddam Iraq)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Oct 23 UK cabinet ordered UK cmdr Gen Nixon to take Baghdad

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Oct 24 UK cmdr in Mesopotamia Gen Nixon told to march on Baghdad

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Nov 2 Ottoman police in Baghdad city began arresting notable Jews and Christians Believed

they were pro-British

 

Nov 5 Sharif Hussein replied to UK Commissioner for Egypt Sir McMahon over Arab

revolt McMahon wanted Basra and Baghdad vilayets to be under UK influence Sharif wanted them part of Arab state under his rule

(Musings On Iraq review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review Empires of the Sand, The Struggle For Mastery In The Middle East 1789-1923)

 

Nov 11 US consulate report Ottomans were expelling Christians and Jews from Baghdad city

as suspected spies

 

Nov 18 UK learned 11-12,000 Ottomans dug into Salman Pak Actually had 21,000 men vs

12,000 for UK

 

Nov 22 Battle of Ctesiphon/Salman Pak began UK ignored reports Turks had been reinforced

UK suffered 4,511 casualties 1st day Was more than total UK losses during 1st year of war in Mesopotamia Ottomans lost 6,188 casualties

Nov 22 Ottomans called on Indian troops to rise up against UK commanders in Mesopotamia

20th Punjabi Batt removed after an Indian killed a British soldier

Nov 22 UK official Sykes wrote letter to Sir Percy Cox lead political officer in

Mesopotamia Said UK made deal with Sharif of Mecca and Arab officers in Baghdad to fight Ottomans In return they would get independent Arab state UK would get Basra vilayet

(Musings On Iraq review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review Empires of the Sand, The Struggle For Mastery In The Middle East 1789-1923)

(Musings On Iraq review U.S. Policy In Post-Saddam Iraq)

 

Nov 23 French diplomat Picot visited London told officials Mosul Baghdad Basra

provinces should be given to Arabs after WWI to placate them

Nov 23 Sir Percy Cox wrote Viceroy of India Lord Hardinger that UK should take Baghdad

vilayet

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

Nov 23 Ottomans launched counterattack vs British Battle of Ctesiphon/Salman Pak

 

Nov 24 UK decided to retreat from Ctesiphon/Salman Pak due to heavy casualties

Nov 24 UK cabinet approved 2 more divisions from France and Egypt be sent to

Mesopotamia after defeat at Ctesiphon/Salman Pak

 

Nov 25 Battle of Ctesiphon/Salman Pak ended British lost and withdrew to Kut

 

Nov 28 Arabs attacked UK ships on Tigris River forcing one to run aground and captured

another

 

Nov 30 Ottomans attacked retreating UK forces from Ctesiphon/Salman Pak at Um at Tubul

Forced UK to retreat further south UK suffered 37 dead 218 missing 218 wounded 520 taken prisoner along with 2 ships Turks had 748 casualties

 

Dec 1 Retreating British force attacked pursuing Ottomans at Um at Tubul after loss at

Battle of Ctesiphon/Salman Pak

 

Dec 3 Retreating UK forces reached Kut after loss at Battle of Ctesiphon/Salman Pak UK

suffered 5,187 casualties over last 10 days

 

Dec 4 Gen Townshend said he would stay at Kut and fortify it until relief arrived

 

Dec 6 UK cmdr Gen Townsend sent his cavalry and transport south from Kut so would have

fewer mouths to feed Believed relief coming from Basra

 

Dec 9 Ottomans began attack upon British at Kut Repulsed Kut would become one of

greatest defeats for UK during WWI

 

Dec 15 German Gen von der Goltz and 30 German officers arrived in Baghdad to take charge

of Mesopotamia campaign vs British

 

Dec 24 Ottomans began 2nd attack upon British at Kut Breached defense but attack faltered

because of bad coordination

 

1916

Jan 3 New Gen Aylmer told to march from Amara to relieve siege at Kut where British

troops trapped

Jan 3 Sykes and Picot drafted deal on dividing Ottoman Empire Baghdad and Basra vilayets

would go to UK Mosul to France Would also include independent Arab state for Sharif Hussein

(Musings On Iraq review Empires of the Sand, The Struggle For Mastery In The Middle East 1789-1923)

(Musings On Iraq review U.S. Policy In Post-Saddam Iraq)

 

Jan 4 British attacked Shaikh Saad in campaign to relieve troops trapped at Kut Turned back

by Ottomans 600 British casualties

 

Jan 5 British attacked Shaikh Saad 2nd time in attempt to reach trapped forces at Kut Took 1st

defensive line but then bogged down

 

Jan 7 British made 3rd attack on Shaikh Saad with reinforcements Still stalemated Jan 6-7

British lost 4,700 casualties Turks 4,000

 

Jan 9 British took Shaikh Saad after Ottomans retreated but not before inflicting heavy

British casualties

 

Jan 13 British attacked Ottomans at Wadi River but stopped 1,613 British casualties 2,000

Turkish ones Ottomans retreated next day

 

Jan 19 UK Mesopotamia cmdr Gen Nixon sick and replaced by General Sir Percy Lake

 

Jan 21 Battle of Hanna Defile British attacked Ottomans but failed 2,741 British casualties

Was defeat in British effort to relieve siege at Kut

 

Feb 4 Sykes-Picot agreement approved by UK Foreign Office Gave Baghdad and Basra

vilayets to UK Mosul to France Included independent Arab state for Sharif Hussein

(Musings On Iraq review Empires of the Sand, The Struggle For Mastery In The Middle East 1789-1923)

(Musings On Iraq review U.S. Policy In Post-Saddam Iraq)

 

Feb 7 British withdrew from Butaniya and attacked by tribesmen British suffered 373

casualties Arabs 1,000

 

Feb 10 UK War Office took over Mesopotamia campaign from India

 

Feb 21 UK made 2nd attack on Hanna Surprise attack worked but no reinforcements to exploit

gains

 

Mar 8 Battle of Dujaila British attack on Ottomans failed British lost 3,474 casualties Turks

1,235 Was defeat in British effort to relieve siege at Kut

 

Mar 9 British retreated from Dujail after failed attack on Ottomans

 

Apr 5 Battle of Sannaiyat by Kut British attacked Ottomans Took Hanna and Fallahiya

British had 1,885 casualties

 

Apr 6 British attacked Sannaiyat by Kut British suffered 1,168 casualties

 

Apr 8 France approved Sykes-Picot agreement Gave Baghdad and Basra vilayets to UK

Mosul to France Included independent Arab state for Sharif Hussein

(Musings On Iraq review Empires of the Sand, The Struggle For Mastery In The Middle East 1789-1923)

(Musings On Iraq review U.S. Policy In Post-Saddam Iraq)

 

Apr 9 British made 3rd assault during Battle of Sannaiyat by Kut Failed again

 

Apr 17 Battle of Bait Isa Turkish counterattack stopped British advance British suffered

1,600 casualties Ottomans 4-5,000 3rd defeat in British effort to relieve siege at Kut

 

Apr 19 German commander of the Ottoman forces in Mesopotamia Gen Goltz died of

typhoid in Baghdad

Apr 19 2nd Battle of Sannaiyat by Kut began with British attack upon Ottoman positions

 

Apr 22 British defeated in 2nd Battle of Sannaiyat by Kut British suffered 1,283 casualties

Setback in attempting to relieve siege at Kut

Apr 22 UK Gen Lake wrote Sir Beauchamp Duff Said British suffered 23,000 casualties

in Mesopotamia since start of 1916

 

Apr 24 British attempt to re-supply besieged garrison at Kut failed

 

Apr 27 UK offered Ottomans all the artillery and 1 mil pounds in return for letting British

forces leave Kut UK forces had been under siege in Kut since Dec Ottomans refused offer

 

Apr 29 Ottomans defeated the British at Battle of Kut after 4 months captured 13,309

prisoners 7,000 of which died in captivity British lost 33,000 casualties One of largest defeats for UK in WWI

 

May 16 Sykes-Picot Agreement broke up Ottoman Empire Basra and Baghdad to UK Mosul

to France Would be independent Arab state under UK and French influence

(Musings On Iraq interview with Princeton’s Sara Pursley on Sykes-Picot and creation of Iraq)

(Musings On Iraq review The Creation of Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review Empires of the Sand, The Struggle For Mastery In The Middle East 1789-1923)

(Musings On Iraq review U.S. Policy In Post-Saddam Iraq)

 

Jun 5 Ali and Faisal sons of Sharif Hussein announced Arab Revolt against Ottomans Many

Iraqi Ottoman officers would join revolt UK promised Sharif empire after war

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review Empires of the Sand, The Struggle For Mastery In The Middle East 1789-1923)

 

Jun 10 Sharif Hussein of Mecca declared Arab revolt against Ottomans backed by UK Many

Iraqi Ottoman officers joined UK promised Sharif an empire from Arabia to Turkey

(Musings On Iraq review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review Empires of the Sand, The Struggle For Mastery In The Middle East 1789-1923)

 

Jul 23 Khalil Pasha St opened Became Rashid St 1st modern road in Baghdad

 

Aug 21 UK parliamentary inquiry began into defeat at Kut

 

Sep 11 Retreating British attacked and broke up tribesmen harassing them in Sahilan, Dhi

Qar

 

Sep 18 British leaders told troops to continue advance in Mesopotamia vs Ottomans

            after huge loss at Kut One of biggest British defeats in WWI

 

Dec 13 British made diversionary attack at Sannaiyat and took Hai in offensive to retake Kut

from Ottomans

 

Dec 22 British forces began digging lines towards Ottomans defenses at Khadairi Bend

 

1917

Jan 7 British made divisionary attack along Tigris River to draw Ottoman forces away from

            Khadairi Bend fort

 

Jan 9 Battle of Mohammed Abdul Hassan

Jan 9 British began assault upon Khadairi Bend fort outside Kut Pushed back

 

Jan 10 British failed at 2nd attack upon Ottomans at Khadairi Bend outside Kut

 

Jan 11 Battle of Hai salient started

 

Jan 19 Ottomans abandoned positions at Khadairi Bend outside Kut

 

Jan 20 British made rare bombing raid on Baghdad

 

Jan 25 British attack on Ottoman positions along Hai River outside Kut pushed back

 

Jan 29 British captured Ottoman fort at Khadairi Bend in campaign to recapture Kut

 

Feb 1 British attacked Hai River salient 2nd time outside Kut Failed again

 

Feb 3 British attacked Hai River salient 3rd time outside Kut Ottomans withdrew afterward

Since start of campaign to retake Kut in Dec 1916 British lost 8,524 casualties Ottomans 10,000 casualties and prisoners

 

Feb 4 British defeated Ottoman forces at Hai River

 

Feb 9 British attacked Dahra bend outside Kut Gained some trenches

 

Feb 11 British renewed attack upon Dahra bend outside Kut

 

Feb 15 British launched 3rd attack and captured Ottoman positions in Dahra bend outside Kut

 

Feb 16 British suffered 10,204 casualties since offensive began to recapture Kut in Dec 1916

 

Feb 17 British attacked Sannaiyat outside Kut but failed to take Ottoman positions Suffered

575 casualties

 

Feb 22 British attacked Sannaiyat outside Kut 2nd time Also crossed Tigris River at Shumran

 

Feb 23 British seized Sannaiyat outside Kut after 6 days of fighting British had 1,996

casualties

 

Feb 24 British retook Kut from Ottomans in 2nd Battle of Kut

 

Feb 25 British attacked retreating Ottoman forces from Kut at Husaini bend British suffered

556 casualties

 

Feb 26 3 British gunboats fired upon by 4 Ottoman ships at Nahr-al-Kalek, Wasit 3 Turkish

ships sunk and 4th captured Turned Ottoman retreat from Kut into a route Losses convinced Turks couldn’t hold Baghdad

 

Mar 1 Gen Maude started campaign to take Baghdad without adequate supplies

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Mar 5 British forces started march on Baghdad from Kut

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Mar 7 British tried and failed to cross Diyala River on march on Baghdad

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Mar 8 British tried to cross Diyala River again to move on Baghdad but failed

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Mar 9 British attacked Tel Aswad 1st Ottoman defensive line outside Baghdad British

couldn’t take Ottoman positions British had 768 casualties Turks 95 Turks retreated at night

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Mar 10 British forces defeated Ottoman defenses outside Baghdad in Diyala River

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

Mar 10 Baghdad governor Khalil Pasha met with commanders Istanbul wanted stiff defense of

Baghdad Generals wanted withdrawal Khalil decided on latter Ottomans destroyed military supplies in city which resulted in destruction of famous Talisman Gate Also destroyed pontoon bridge across Tigris

 

Mar 11 British army captured Baghdad Led to widespread looting Driven off by soldiers

Population then celebrated arrive of British

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Mar 12 Gen Maude ordered to maintain Ottoman administration in Baghdad vilayet Replace

Turkish bureaucrats with Arab ones

 

Mar 13 British started Samarra offensive against Ottomans after taking Baghdad

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Mar 15 British took Bhopal Hill from Turks Consolidated position in Baghdad vilayet British

suffered 518 casualties Turks 800-1,000

 

Mar 16 British War Cabinet created Mesopotamia administration committee to decide

            on form of govt in captured areas

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Mar 17 British forces captured Baquba from Ottomans

 

Mar 19 British forces captured Fallujah from Ottomans

Mar 19 British commander Gen Maude sent message to Iraqis saying British had not come

as conquerors but liberators and promised eventually Arab state free of foreign rule Said British would not impose their institutions and called on Arabs to help rule

(Musings On Iraq review The Chatham House Version and other Middle-Eastern Studies)

(Musings On Iraq review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review A Short History of Iraq)

(Musings On Iraq review Supremacy And Oil, Iraq, Turkey, and the Anglo-American World Order, 1918-1930)

(Musings On Iraq review U.S. Policy In Post-Saddam Iraq)

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

Mar 19 Secretary of State for India Austen Chamberlain argued India had won Mesopotamia

and therefore it should go to India

 

Mar 25 British forces defeated by Ottomans at Battle of Mount Hamrin, Diyala British

suffered 1,165 casualties Ottomans withdrew afterward

 

Apr 7 Sir Percy Cox wrote UK Foreign Office Said Baghdad and Basra vilayets should be run

similarly instead of 2 separate provinces 1st talk of uniting two under UK rule

(Musings On Iraq review U.S. Policy In Post-Saddam Iraq)

 

Apr 8 British took Balad from Ottomans

 

Apr 9 Turkish XIII Corps from Persia attacked British attempting to reach Samarra and

Turkish XVIII Corps Were stopped

 

Apr 10 US consulate report Economy in Baghdad collapsing after British took city Trade cut

off No business

 

Apr 11 Turkish XIII Corps from Persia made 2nd attack in attempt to reach XVIII Corps in

Samarra in Battle of Shiala Were stopped British counterattacked Forced Turks to retreat

 

Apr 20 British military governor in Baghdad banned weapons and ammunition for public and

imposed curfew on city

 

Apr 21 Battle of Istabulat in Diyala started with Ottomans being defeated British also started

attack upon Samarra

 

Apr 23 British Samarra Offensive ended in victory over Ottomans British suffered 2,228

casualties Turks 3,700 British began shifting units to Palestine and largely halted campaign in Mesopotamia

 

Apr 26 British attacked Turks at Edheim, Diyala and occupied town Turks counterattacked

and retook it

 

Apr 30 Battle of the Boot at Band-i-Adhaim

 

May 19 Gen Sir Stanley Maude commander of British forces in Iraq said they

            had come as liberators not conquerors

(Musings On Iraq review The Chatham House Version and other Middle-Eastern Studies)

(Musings On Iraq review U.S. Policy In Post-Saddam Iraq)

 

May 20 Sharif Hussein agreed to UK control of Baghdad vilayet after WWI

 

May 27 UK Col Clayton in Egypt worried Sykes-Picot would create opposition by Sharif of

Mecca against UK taking Baghdad Included independent Arab state for Sharif

(Musings On Iraq review The Creation of Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review Empires of the Sand, The Struggle For Mastery In The Middle East 1789-1923)

(Musings On Iraq interview with Princeton’s Sara Pursley on Sykes-Picot and creation of Iraq)

 

Jun 27 UK report on defeat at Kut published Led to Secretary of State for India Chamberlain

to resign Blamed India for mismanaging and never adequately funding war in Mesopotamia

 

Jul 4 Al-Arab paper established Said it was for Arabs but was actually run by British

eventually under Gertrude Bell

(Musings On Iraq review of Gertrude Bell And Iraq)

(Musings On Iraq review Gertrude Bell, Explorer of the Middle East)

(Musings On Iraq movie review Letters from Baghdad)

(Musings On Iraq review Desert Queen, The Extraordinary Life of Gertrude Bell: Adventurer, Adviser to Kings, Ally of Lawrence of Arabia)

 

Jul 11 1st Battle of Ramadi started Ottomans forced British to retreat

 

Sep 20 Sir Percy Cox made civil commissioner in Iraq

 

Sep 28 2nd Battle of Ramadi started

 

Sep 29 2nd Battle of Ramadi ended with Ottomans losing city

 

Nov 5 Battle of Tikrit started

 

Nov 6 Turks withdrew from Tikrit British occupied town British suffered 1,801 casualties            Turks 1,500

 

Nov 15 UK cmdr in Mesopotamia Gen Maude held victory parade in Baghdad At ceremony

afterward drank milk contaminated with cholera and died three days later

 

Nov 22 Gen Marshall took over command of UK forces in Mesopotamia Told to consolidate

position in Basra and Baghdad vilayets Led him to send out expeditionary forces to take Musayib Hilla Kufa Abu Suhair Samawa Darraji Qara Tappa Khanaqin

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Dec 17 US consulate report Since British took Baghdad all trade cut off Businesses closed

People out of work

 

1918

Jan 5 Lloyd George said Ottoman provinces including Mesopotamia should have

            “separate national conditions”

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

Mar 9 British took Hit, Anbar without a fight from Ottomans

 

Mar 19 UK political officer killed in Najaf by two groups that ran city Zuqurt and Shumurt

Started revolt British blockaded city and cut off water

 

Mar 26 Battle of Khan al-Baghdadi began

 

Mar 27 British took Haditha

 

Mar 28 British took Ana

 

Apr 7 UK artillery and attack drove rebels out of area outside of Najaf city

 

Apr 9 UK threatened to bombard one quarter of Najaf if revolt not ended City surrendered

 

Apr 13 British occupied Najaf and put down revolt

 

Apr 27 British shelled Najaf with artillery to put down new revolt

 

May 4 Najaf revolt ended after rebels gave up to UK Ended Zuqurt and Shumurt control of city

 

May 7 British took Kirkuk based on false idea that it would stop Germans from organizing

Persians to attack India British would later leave Kirkuk

(Musings On Iraq review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921)

 

May 21 UK PM George abrogated Long-Berenger UK-French oil deal due to disagreement

with France over Iraq-Syrian border George wanted Iraq to extend to Mediterranean

 

May 25 11 leaders of Najaf revolt executed in Kufa by British

 

Jul 31 UK oil expert Adm Slade wrote 1st Lord of the Admiralty Sir Geddes that UK should

seize as much oil as possible which included fields in Iraq

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

 

Aug 11 UK Foreign Secretary Balfour said British war in Mesopotamia should be

justified by securing water that would also give it control of oil Balfour’s statement prompted Premier Lloyd George to call for British to seize Ottoman’s Mosul province

(Musings On Iraq How The Ottoman Province Of Mosul Became Part Of Iraq)

(Musings On Iraq review The Chatham House Version and other Middle-Eastern Studies)

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review U.S. Policy In Post-Saddam Iraq)

 

Aug 13 UK Foreign Min Balfour said 1 war aim was to secure agreement over Mesopotamia

to secure oil there

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

 

Oct 2 UK War Office told cmdr in Mesopotamia Gen Marshall Turks would give up soon so

British should seize as much territory and oil as possible

(Musings On Iraq review The Chatham House Version and other Middle-Eastern Studies)

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq review U.S. Policy In Post-Saddam Iraq)

 

Oct 23 Battle of Shirqat started as British forces moved north from Baghdad to seize Mosul

province and its oil before war ended

(Musings On Iraq How The Ottoman Province Of Mosul Became Part Of Iraq)

(Musings On Iraq review The Chatham House Version and other Middle-Eastern Studies)

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

 

Oct 28 British defeated Turks at Shirqat

 

Oct 30 Armistice of Mudros signed between British and Ottomans 6th Army in Mesopotamia

surrendered to British Ended WWI in Iraq UK wasn’t able to seize Mosul province and its oil before end of war

(Musings On Iraq interview with Princeton’s Sara Pursley on Sykes-Picot and creation of Iraq)

(Musings On Iraq review The Creation of Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

Oct 30 UK Civil commissioner in Baghdad suggested setting up council of chiefs in organized

organized by England

(Musings On Iraq review Kurds of Iraq, Tragedy and Hope)

 

Oct 31 UK-Ottoman armistice in WWI went into effect Turkish cmdr in Mosul asked UK

forces to retreat back to Qayara but they refused

 

Nov 1 Ottoman cmdr in Mosul vilayet asked British to retreat to Qayara and not threaten

Mosul city

Nov 1 UK cmdr in Mesopotamia Gen Marshall said Turks withdrawing from Mosul could

lead to disorder and therefore UK had to take city

 

Nov 2 UK forces told to seize Mosul city Told Ottoman cmdr in Mosul to withdraw but he

refused

(Musings On Iraq How The Ottoman Province Of Mosul Became Part Of Iraq)

(Musings On Iraq interview with Princeton’s Sara Pursley on Sykes-Picot and creation of Iraq)

(Musings On Iraq review The Creation of Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

 

Nov 3 British troops took Mosul city from Ottomans after WW1 armistice

(Musings On Iraq How The Ottoman Province Of Mosul Became Part Of Iraq)

(Musings On Iraq interview with Princeton’s Sara Pursley on Sykes-Picot and creation of Iraq)

(Musings On Iraq review The Creation of Iraq 1914-1921)

(Musings On Iraq book review Enemy On The Euphrates, The Battle For Iraq 1914-1921)

 

Nov 7 UK cmdr Mesopotamia Gen Marshall sent telegram Said under WWI armistice UK

allowed to occupy Mosul if security threatened It wasn’t

Nov 7 Anglo-French declaration said goal of WWI was to emancipate people living under

Ottoman rule Said would allow national govts and free choice in Mesopotamia under Entente Alliance supervision

(Musings On Iraq review U.S. Policy In Post-Saddam Iraq)

 

Nov 8 UK Foreign Min official Sykes wrote proclamation that goal of war was to free all

people under Ottoman Empire and give them self govt

(Musings On Iraq review U.S. Policy In Post-Saddam Iraq)

 

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