Review Edmund Candler, The Long Road to Baghdad, Volume II, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1919

  

Edmund Candler was a journalist who traveled with the British forces during the Mesopotamia campaign of World War I. This second volume of his book The Long Road to Baghdad covers the end of the war from 1917-1918. The vast majority of the writing is a blow by blow account of the various battles fought as the British conquered what would become Iraq. It does bring up larger issues however such as the lack of a strategy and the contempt the English had for the Ottomans and Arabs.

Review When Parliaments Ruled the Middle East, Iraq and Syria, 1946-63

Rey, Matthieu, When Parliaments Ruled the Middle East, Iraq and Syria, 1946-63, Cairo New York: The American University in Cairo Press, 2022

 

Matthieu Rey in When Parliaments Ruled the Middle East, Iraq and Syria, 1946-63 doesn’t provide a completely convincing argument that parliamentary democracy became the basis of post-World War II politics in Iraq and Syria. Rey’s thesis is that during the end of the Ottoman period until the early 1960s a new elite emerged in Iraq and Syria that wanted Western style political reforms and pushed parliamentarianism as the way to achieve them. It expanded representation but also led to divisions which eventually ended the system. Rey does prove that parliamentarism persisted in both countries despite coups and would be autocrats. On the other hand he downplays many issues like corrupt elections, how assemblies lacked power and how there were never any substantive reforms. That’s why his book doesn’t completely pass the test.

Review Empires of the Sand, The Struggle For Mastery In The Middle East 1789-1923

Karsh, Efraim and Karsh, Inari, Empires of the Sand, The Struggle For Mastery In The Middle East 1789-1923, Cambridge, London: Harvard University Press, 2003

 

Empires of the Sand, The Struggle For Mastery In The Middle East 1789-1923 by Efraim and Inari Karsh attempts to dispel conventional wisdom about the creation of the modern Middle East. Many historians focus upon western imperialism as the main force during this period. The Karshes want to look at how local actors like the Ottomans, Sharif Hussein of the Hijaz and his son Faisal shaped events in conjunction with European powers. Their thesis is that the Middle East had a long history of cooperation and conflict with Europe which gave rise to the end of the Ottoman Empire and the emergence of the Arab states after World War I.

Review Relations Of The People to The Land In Southern Iraq

Baali, Fuad, Relations Of The People to The Land In Southern Iraq, Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1966

 

Relations Of The People To The Land In Southern Iraq is a 1966 survey of land ownership in Iraq and the problems that ensued. Before the 1958 coup the country was dominated by large landowners which led to a ruling oligarchy and mass poverty. Fuad Baali attempts to explain how this situation came about by going through Iraqi history and laws.

Review When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921

Townshend, Charles, When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921, London: Faber and Faber Limited, 2010

 

Charles Townshend wrote a very engaging history with When God Made Hell, The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914-1921. What started out as a military expedition to protect England’s oil interests in Persia led to an extended campaign to seize as much Ottoman territory as possible in Mesopotamia during World War I. The whole time London never enunciated its goals or strategy and that continued after the war as well. It proved to be a classic example of mission creep with an unintended consequence of the new country of Iraq being created.

Review Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest

Majd, Mohammad Gholi, Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest, Lanham, Boulder, New York, Toronto, Oxford: University Press of America, Inc., 2006

 

Iraq In World War I, From Ottoman Rule to British Conquest by Mohammad Gholi Majd is based upon primary sources. Namely U.S. diplomatic cables from Iraq as it was the only foreign delegation to stay in Baghdad during the entire war and the official British history of the Mesopotamian campaign. This turns out to be the major flaw of the book because it consists of one long quote from a document after another. There is very little original writing by Majd, absolutely no analysis and provides nothing from the Ottoman’s side. There’s not even a conclusion. The author also couldn’t say no to any paper that he liked which means there are all kinds of tangents included that could have been cut out. On the good side it does provide reasons why England invaded Mesopotamia and the day to day battles during the war. Those are overshadowed by its faults however.

Review The Industrialization Of Iraq, Harvard Middle Eastern Monographs, No. 5

Langley, Kathleen, The Industrialization Of Iraq, Harvard Middle Eastern Monographs, No. 5, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962

 

The Industrialization of Iraq by Kathleen Langley is an overview of the development of Iraq from the Ottoman era up to the 1958 coup. The author found  no real plan to grow the economy until the 1930s. When one was finally created it was haphazard at best and failed in its goals. Langley’s thesis is that Iraq had potential for growth and the money to do it with its oil profits but only helped the rich and not the public overall.

Review Arab War Lords and Iraqi Star Gazers, Second Edition, Gertrude Bell’s The Arab of Mesopotamia

Rich, Paul, Editor, Arab War Lords and Iraqi Star Gazers, Second Edition, Gertrude Bell’s The Arab of Mesopotamia, San Jose, New York, Lincoln, Shanghai: Authors Choice Press, 2001

 

Arab War Lords and Iraqi Star Gazers is a collection of two pamphlets Gertrude Bell wrote for British troops entering Iraq during World War I. The first was printed in 1916 called The Arab of Mesopotamia and the second came out the next year Asiatic Turkey. The writings were part information guides to the lands and people of the Ottoman Empire and part propaganda justifying why London invaded.

Review The Making of Iraq 1900-1963, Capital, Power and Ideology

Haj, Samira, The Making of Iraq 1900-1963, Capital, Power and Ideology, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997

 

The Making of Iraq 1900-1963, Capital, Power and Ideology is a detailed academic book on how the development of Iraq’s economy under the Ottomans and then the British created a political system that would eventually bring down both the monarchy and General Abd al-Karim Qasim’s government. The author Samira Haj argues that the agriculture system dominated by large estates distorted the economy and limited the government which created conditions for a coup in 1958 led by General Qasim. The forces that backed him would eventually split over ideology and class and led to his demise as well. Haj emphasizes that internal dynamics rather than foreign influence or international capitalism led to these changes

Review Iraq Between the Two World Wars, The Militarist Origins of Tyranny

Simon, Reeva Spector, Iraq Between the Two World Wars, The Militarist Origins of Tyranny, New York, Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press, 2004

 

Iraq Between The Two World Wars, The Militarist Origins of Tyranny by Reeva Spector Simon is a very well written and interesting book about how Germany influenced Iraq, shaped its concept of pan-Arabism and led to the 1941 Anglo-Iraq War. Simon argues the Iraqi military’s ideas on how to unify Iraq and create an Arab federation had their origins in the German model of nationalism and militarism, which they had initially learned about during the Ottoman period. This led the army to enter politics and overthrow governments in coups and eventually side with the Axis during World War II. Simon believes that these ideas continued afterward leading to the end of the monarchy and eventually Saddam Hussein. That last part is the only crack in the author’s argument.

Review Iraq and Gertrude Bell’s The Arab of Mesopotamia

Rich, Paul, Editor, Iraq and Gertrude Bell’s The Arab of Mesopotamia, London, Boulder, New York, Toronto, Plymouth, UK: Lexington Books, 2008

 

Iraq and Gertrude Bell’s The Arab of Mesopotamia is a collection of two pamphlets Gertrude Bell wrote for the British War Office during World War I. The first was The Arab of Mesopotamia written in 1916 while Bell was in Basra. The second was Asiatic Turkey from 1917. They were propaganda pieces to be read by British officers who were coming to govern Iraq after the English conquered it during the war. They provide an overview of some of the people of the Ottoman Empire and a justification for why the English were there. That means she criticizes everything the Ottomans did and praises the British.

Review The Modern History of Iraq

Marr, Phebe, The Modern History of Iraq, Boulder, Oxford: Westview Press, 2004

Phebe Marr is considered one of the great Iraqi historians, and her book The Modern History of Iraq is one of the basic books to read to get an introduction to the country. It is laid out in chronological order going through the major time periods from the Ottomans up to the U.S. invasion. Marr outlines the strengths and weaknesses of each era. Her thesis is that Iraq has always been a challenge to rule due to its diversity. When governance is done well Iraq has created great things, but when done badly it has led to chaos. Unfortunately, the nation has had more of the latter since its creation.

Review Iraq Between Occupations, Perspectives from 1920 to the Present

Review Edited by Baram, Amatzia, Rohde, Achim and Zeidel, Ronen, Iraq Between Occupations, Perspectives from 1920 to the Present, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010

Iraq Between Occupations, Perspectives from 1920 to the Present was the result of a conference on Iraq held at Haifa University in 2007. It collected together the work of 14 different authors covering Iraqi identity and nationalism, the monarchy, Kurdish politics, and finally the post-Saddam Hussein period. Like any anthology there are ups and downs in the pieces, but fortunately most of the pieces are quite good adding some interesting insights into Iraqi history and politics.

Review Understanding Iraq, the Whole Sweep of Iraqi History, from Genghis Khan’s Mongols to the Ottoman Turks to the British Mandate to the American Occupation

Polk, William, Understanding Iraq, the Whole Sweep of Iraqi History, from Genghis Khan’s Mongols to the Ottoman Turks to the British Mandate to the American Occupation, New York, London, Toronto, Sydney: Harper Perennial, 2006

Understanding Iraq was one of many book written because of the 2003 invasion. Historian William Polk had decades of experience with that nation and even lived there for a time in the 1950s. The purpose of his book was to try to educate the West about Iraq and draw parallels between the past and present. Polk largely succeeded although there were a few problems along the way.

Review Mosul Before Iraq, Like Bees Making Five-Sided Cells

Review Shields, Sarah, Mosul Before Iraq, Like Bees Making Five-Sided Cells, Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000

Professor Sarah Shields’ aim in Mosul Before Iraq, Like Bees Making Five-Sided Cells was to challenge traditional analysis of Ottoman provinces like Mosul that simply focused upon Europe’s either positive or negative effects. Before researchers would talk about how trade with Europe was supposed to help places like Mosul modernize. Then it switched to how Europe underdeveloped these areas and created a situation of dependency. Shields hoped to move away from both models and emphasize how a province like Mosul played a role in a regional economy within the Ottoman Empire as well as its connections with Europe. Her work goes through how different groups in the province like merchants, peasants, and tribes were connected to production, trade, and taxes in the last century of the empire. While there are some interesting points, after a while the book becomes rather monotonous.

Review The Creation of Iraq 1914-1921

Review Edited by Simon, Reeva Spector Tejirian, Eleanor, The Creation of Iraq 1914-1921, New York: Columbia University Press, 2004

The Creation of Iraq was the result of a 2003 conference at Columbia University on the making of modern Iraq. The hope was that this history, especially the British Mandate could provide lessons to the Americans that were embarking on their own occupation of the country. The papers presented at that meeting were compiled into this book published in 2004. There are chapters on the three Ottoman provinces of Basra, Baghdad and Mosul that would become the new nation, the major countries involved in its formation, and issues such as the Kurds and oil. At just over 160 pages of text, this is a very short and concise history with some great insights on how Iraq came about.

Review Iraq in Turmoil, Historical Perspectives of Dr. Ali al-Wardi, From the Ottoman Empire to King Feisal

Aboul-Enein, Youssef, Iraq in Turmoil, Historical Perspectives of Dr. Ali al-Wardi, From the Ottoman Empire to King Feisal, Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2012

Iraq In Turmoil is based upon U.S. Navy Commander Youssef Aboul-Enein’s reading of Dr. Ali al-Wardi’s eight volume Social Glimpses of Iraqi Modern History. The commander believed it was important for the American military to understand the countries and societies they were operating within. That led Aboul-Enein to originally sum up the main points of each of Wardi’s books in the U.S. Army’s journal Armor. Those pieces were then collected together in Iraq in Turmoil, with an introduction by an American officer that starts off each chapter. Although Wardi’s massive 3,000+ pages collection claims to be a history of Iraq, it is actually about the entire region starting with the Ottoman Empire to the beginnings of Iraq, Syria, and Saudi Arabia. That meant while Aboul-Enein wanted to educate U.S. forces about Iraq, it is less than half the book.

Review An Analysis of Hanna Batatu’s The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq

Stahl, Dale, An Analysis of Hanna Batatu’s The Old SocialClasses and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq, London: Macat, 2017

Hanna Batatu’s The Old Social Classes and Revolutionary Movements in Iraq is one of the most famous histories of Iraq from the Ottoman era to the after the 1958 coup. While it is widely talked about and citied in many books the problem is its size. The tome is 1,300 pages full of endless data, analysis and charts. That makes it a daunting challenge for the layperson to get through. Fortunately, Dale Stahl wrote this quick 78 page breakdown of the book.

How The Turks And the British Created Iraq Not Sykes-Picot

The Sykes-Picot Treaty has become the default explanation for both Westerners and locals to explain all the problems in the Middle East. In Iraq’s case the argument is that it is an artificial state created by France and England via the 1916 treaty made during World War I. A quick look at a map of the treaty would show that is false, but it hasn’t stopped people from referring to it over and over. In truth, it was fighting between the Turks and British during and after World War I that fixed the first outline of the Iraqi state.  

The end of World War I would lead to the creation of Iraq. During the war the British conquered the Ottoman’s provinces in Mesopotamia. A British expeditionary force landed in Basra in October 1914. The war went slowly, taking three years to conquer Baghdad in March 1917, Tikrit in November, and the middle of 1918 to seize Kirkuk. The defeat of the Central Powers in Europe led the Ottomans to sign the Treaty of Mudros on October 30, 1918. That didn’t stop the British military, which was given orders by the War Office to continue their march north to take the city of Mosul on November 3. Since this happened after the armistice the Ottomans and later the Turks argued that this occupation was illegal and continued to claim the Mosul province as their own. In August 1920 the Treaty of Sevres ceded Mesopotamia to the British creating its Iraq Mandate, but the Ottomans still wanted Mosul. It wasn’t until 1926 that the Iraq-Turkey border was set after the Turkish War of Independence resulted in the Turks pushing the British south to the present demarcation line. Rather than Sykes-Picot, which was signed by London and Paris in 1916, it was the British and Turks who fought over and later gave birth to Iraq. How World War I ended led to eight years of disputes between the two countries. Eventually not only were the Ottomans’ Basra, Baghdad and Mosul provinces ceded to England, but the northern border was set too. Very few know this history, and often ignore the agency of the Turks versus the British. It seems a lot easier and handier to blame European imperialism and the great powers for Iraq’s creation since it requires little explanation or knowledge of the region to be explained and believed.

SOURCES

The Long, Long Trail, “Mesopotamia”

Musings On Iraq, “Is Iraq An Artificial State? Interview With Princeton’s Sara Pursley,” 7/6/15

Sluglett, Peter, Britain in Iraq: Contriving King and Country, New York: Columbia University Press, 2007

Tripp, Charles, A History of Iraq, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007

Is Iraq An Artificial State? Interview With Princeton’s Sara Pursley

Whenever Iraq runs into trouble people start talking about it being an artificial state. The argument goes that the European powers after World War I divided up the Middle East into spheres of influence with the Sykes-Picot treaty, which ignored local interests causing the present day problems in Iraq and the region. This is an ahistorical argument as Sykes-Picot did not create the modern borders. Princeton’s Sara Pursley dissected this history in a two part series for Jadaliyya entitled “Lines Drawn on an Empty Map: Iraq’s Borders and the Legend of the Artificial State.” This is an interview with Pursley to discuss how exactly Iraq’s borders were determined, and how that has been interpreted.